Chapter 3 "The Most Disliked is Ding Ruchang"

Ding Ruchang is qualified to be calm; this German-built battleship "Dingyuan," measuring 95 meters in length, with a full displacement of 7,355 tons and a speed of 16 knots, was the largest new-type warship in the Far East at that time. The two 30.5 cm twin guns mounted on the "Dingyuan" could mercilessly send all enemy ships to the bottom of the sea. What would it be like to let Ito Yuheng take a tour?

The deployment of Japanese troops to Taiwan this time has resulted in both Qing and Japan entering an era of naval armament expansion in East Asian naval history

By the time the "Naval Regulations" were promulgated alongside the "Constitution of the Empire of Japan" in 1890, the Japanese Navy had already established a "permanent fleet" consisting of six coastal defense ships: "Takachiho," "Fusō," "Yamato," "Katsuragi," "Musashi," and "Naniwa," as well as an "exercise fleet" composed of some outdated vessels. In 1891, the first large-scale naval exercise was held, with the permanent fleet acting as the offensive "Eastern Army" against the exercise fleet, which played the defensive "Western Army." Following the exercise, a second naval review was conducted. Compared to the first naval review, which featured six warships with a displacement of 2,400 tons, this time the lineup reached 19 warships with a total displacement of 30,000 tons, marking a 15-fold increase in the navy over 23 years.

July 13, 1891, four years before the First Sino-Japanese War

Compared to the General Staff, which became independent from the Army Ministry in 1878, the Military Command was separated from the Navy Ministry 15 years later, in 1893. Initially, it was named the "Navy Military Command," and it took another 40 years to drop the term "Navy," finally becoming the "Military Command" in 1933. The author has discussed in "Military Bureaucracy" the background of the General Staff's independence from the Army Ministry, which led to the separation of military, political, and command functions within the Japanese Army. At the time of this separation, the Navy had not yet separated, primarily because the direct trigger for the Army's separation was a mutiny known as the "Takehashi Incident." Unlike the Army, where a few individuals with firearms could instigate a rebellion, the Navy could not operate a warship without unanimous agreement among the crew. Even if the entire crew agreed, if the dock did not supply coal, the ship would merely be a floating iron box, making the possibility of a mutiny almost zero. Therefore, the Navy was not considered at the outset of the separation of military, political, and command functions.

How could such a strange result occur? Perhaps on that day, God had not played with Amaterasu, which was somewhat unfair to the British. Firstly, when the artillery battle began, the sea was tumultuous, causing the British warships to pitch violently and making it impossible to aim, thus inflicting no damage on the coastal artillery of the Satsuma domain. Moreover, the location where the British fleet was anchored happened to be where the Satsuma artillery usually practiced shooting at target ships, so the Satsuma artillery did not even need to practice aiming; one shot fired directly hit the flagship of the British forces.

Five years later, although the Beiyang Fleet has not added new ships or new artillery, it still left Ito Yuheng feeling dejected

However, the Navy envied the Army's General Staff, and the Navy's military department sought to establish a "Navy General Staff" independent from the Navy Ministry. This proposal faced strong opposition from Yamagata Aritomo and Katsura Taro, who had introduced the General Staff system from Germany. Their reasoning was that the nature of land and naval warfare is different; the Army is the main force while the Navy is merely a supporting force. Each side having its own staff would only lead to unnecessary disputes. Land warfare is a battlefield of intellect, while naval warfare is merely a training ground. Army generals need to learn extensively, while naval officers only need to know navigation. In any case, there is no necessity for the Navy to establish a General Staff; after all, no country in the world has a naval General Staff.

Hua Shan sighed: "Li Hongzhang's objective has been achieved." The individual known as the "brain" of the navy, Ito Yuheng, who held the position of Director of Military Affairs and was effectively commanding the Japanese Navy, was compelled to state, "There is no possibility of victory." The purpose of Li Hongzhang sending Ding Ruchang to lead the Beiyang Fleet on a visit to Japan—to demonstrate to Japan—has indeed been accomplished.

The boundaries are clearly defined; the rules of the army do not apply to the navy. The army established a "Military Academy" and stated that only those from the army can serve as staff officers, whereas the navy does not have such a regulation, allowing anyone to serve as a staff officer

However, upon seeing the evidence presented by the Japanese side that four of the deceased were Japanese fishermen, Mao Changxi unexpectedly changed his statement, declaring, "(Taiwan) is inhabited by uncivilized people; whether to attack or not, that is a matter for your country to decide for itself."

However, facing the Beiyang Navy's "Dingyuan" and "Zhenyuan," each weighing 30,000 tons, the navy appeared as fragile as paper. This is the source of the concern expressed by Ito Yuheng after observing the "Dingyuan" and "Zhenyuan." Consequently, the entire nation of Japan, starting from Emperor Meiji, began to make sacrifices to support the navy. In 1893, Minister of the Navy Nirei Kiyohara, along with Privy Councilor Hayama Yoshiki, proposed to the parliament the construction of two ironclad ships, one cruiser, and one light cruiser, with a total construction cost of 19.55 million yen, which was rejected by the parliament. However, on February 10, Emperor Meiji issued the "Shipbuilding Edict," which stated that over the next six years, the annual reduction of 300,000 yen (equivalent to 200,000 taels of silver) would be made from the imperial treasury, and all civil and military officials would have their salaries reduced by 10% to assist in naval shipbuilding. The parliament had no choice but to pass a budget allocating 18.08 million yen over six years.

The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force Academy is fundamentally modeled on the British system; however, it incorporates a unique vertical division system known as "squads," which is derived from the United States Naval Academy. This system consists of approximately 40 students divided into three grades. The third-year students are referred to as "first-class students" and play a guiding role within the squad, while the second-year students are known as "second-class students" who assist the first-class students. All physically demanding tasks are assigned to the first-year students, referred to as "third-class students." The academy's educational system lasts either three or four years, which means that there can also be "fourth-class students" who interact daily with students from up to seven preceding and succeeding classes. Besides classroom instruction, all aspects of life and training at the academy are conducted on a squad basis, fostering a sense of unity within the navy and instilling absolute obedience to senior students.

Building a navy requires many components, such as at least having warships, personnel to operate these warships, and the organizational structure of these personnel. Generally speaking, among these three elements, the most eye-catching is the warship; however, the issue of warships is actually the easiest and simplest to address. As long as one has the financial resources, anything can be purchased. At that time, Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and the United States were all vying for influence in Asia, and the latest warships were readily available for purchase. The real challenge lies in the training, cultivation, and organization of personnel.

For Japan, the completion of the final preparations for the navy signifies that everything is in place

The report from Ito states: "If we were to go to war with the Qing Dynasty now, we have no possibility of victory. Just the 'Dingyuan' and 'Zhenyuan' alone could send our entire standing fleet to the bottom of the sea. Your Excellency, we need warships; we are a maritime nation surrounded by the sea on all sides. Defending our country means defending our seas, and possessing warships capable of countering the 'Dingyuan' is of utmost importance to us."

Ultimately, the naval staff was almost entirely composed of graduates from the Naval Academy, but it was only "almost." Vice Admiral Takijirō Ōnishi, the "father of the Kamikaze attack squadron," failed the entrance exam twice, yet he still became the Deputy Chief of the Military Affairs Bureau, indicating that the navy did not have such a rigid requirement.

The General Staff Headquarters was disbanded, and the Army reclaimed the title of "General Staff," firmly opposing the addition of the term "Army" as a qualifier. This is because the Regulations of the General Staff explicitly state: "The Chief of Staff is the Chief of Staff of the Imperial Army," which also includes your Navy. Why should we add the qualifier "Army"? If you want to add it, you can do so yourselves. The Navy, which could only swallow its grievances, after a few years of using the term "Navy General Staff," simply dropped the word "Staff" altogether, renaming it the "Navy Command Department" to completely delineate itself from the Army. This is because the Regulations of the General Staff explicitly state: "The Chief of Staff is the Chief of Staff of the Imperial Army," which also includes your Navy. Why should we add the qualifier "Army"? If you want to add it, you can do so yourselves. The Navy, which could only swallow its grievances, after a few years of using the term "Navy General Staff," simply dropped the word "Staff" altogether, renaming it the "Navy Command Department" to completely delineate itself from the Army.

Why is this the case? The navy has its own particularities. Firstly, the navy operates on the vast ocean, where the survival of all is interconnected; if a ship sinks, everyone perishes together. It can be said that there exists a community of fate from the ordinary sailor to the commanding officer. Conversely, the confinement of these gentlemen in a cramped metal vessel can lead to irritability, anxiety, and aggression. Therefore, the foremost principle of naval education is interpersonal relationship training, a lesson that the Royal Navy of the British Empire has spent over a century refining.

Regardless of the circumstances, the organization of the navy did not exhibit any duality in military and political command until after the Russo-Japanese War. All power was essentially held by the Navy Ministry, and everything was quite sound, with no significant issues apparent.

Students at the Naval Academy enter as Corporal First Class, equivalent to a Sergeant, which differs from the Army Non-Commissioned Officer School where students start at the lowest rank of Private Second Class

Minister of the Navy Huashan is awaiting Ito's report at the Navy Department

While cultivating talent, the organizational development of the Navy is also underway. The Meiji Restoration was primarily supported by the Satsuma Domain (now around Kagoshima Prefecture) and the Choshu Domain (now around Yamaguchi Prefecture), referred to as the "Satsuma-Choshu Alliance." After the Restoration, the Choshu Domain took control of the army, while the Satsuma Domain dominated the navy, leading to the saying, "Choshu's army, Satsuma's navy." The three key figures in the early development of the Japanese Navy, namely Kawamura Sumiyoshi, who served successively as Navy Minister and Navy Minister, and Saigo Takamori, who held positions as Deputy Chief of the General Staff and Navy Minister of the General Staff, were all from Satsuma.

Dai Shan Yan, Kuroda Kiyotaka, and Tōgō Heihachirō all participated in that war, and thus everyone agreed on the necessity of establishing a navy, with the notion that there was no other alternative but to learn from Britain

However, the result was that the details of the Beiyang Fleet were thoroughly exposed by others

However, these few warships did not participate in the First Sino-Japanese War; the vessels that took part were part of the "Four Scenery Ships" program that began in 1888

Every day, Colonel Heihachiro Togō of the East Sea observes the "Pingyuan" at the dock, whether in military uniform or civilian clothes. His final conclusion is: "The Qing navy is not to be feared; they are merely a dulled treasured sword. A treasured sword is indeed a treasured sword, but it has lost its edge and cannot be relied upon when truly needed." Why does he say this? Using Togō's own words: "On the sacred gun barrel, there are many items hanging, from underwear to socks, it looks just like a clothesline. This is still in a foreign port, and the deck is also in disarray, completely unkempt." "The gun barrel is the soul of a warship. The fact that the Qing navy can act so carelessly indicates the morale of this fleet; from officers to soldiers, there is no sense of tension. The inherent power of the warship cannot be exerted, and there is nothing to fear." This speaks to the software of the navy; without the necessary supporting software, merely having hardware cannot be called a navy. Without the necessary supporting software, merely having hardware cannot be called a navy.

When the General Staff was established independently, the Navy did not even have a General Staff, which meant that some functions of the General Staff were carried out by the Military Department of the Navy Ministry. The Japanese Army's General Staff system and the subsequent separation of military and political command were introduced from Germany, while the Japanese Navy learned from the British. Therefore, it was quite normal that there was no General Staff in the organization at the beginning. To this day, neither the Royal Navy nor the United States Navy has the title "General Staff"; the Royal Navy is even more peculiar, as it does not have a Navy General Staff, yet the First Sea Lord is also the Chief of Naval Staff, leaving one to wonder where the "Chief" comes from.

The most important aspect of the Naval Academy is its adherence to the seriousness of the entrance examination. With the exception of royal family members, everyone is treated equally in the face of scores, with no restrictions based on class or rank. In the early Meiji period, specifically in the 1870s, Japan was an extremely impoverished and underdeveloped country. The fair admissions process of the Naval Academy, along with the exemption of tuition and living expenses, made it a place where graduating as a naval officer guaranteed a lifelong career supported by the state. This immediately made it one of the most ideal destinations for young people, allowing the Naval Academy to attract the most outstanding students, similar to the Army Officer School. This is how the Naval Academy developed. Even after the British instructors withdrew, the education and management of the school did not relax, and the quality of teaching did not decline, thus establishing itself as one of the three major naval academies in the world. With this condition, the Japanese Navy was able to ensure the quality of its officers.

The John Bulls were astonished; this was the first time they learned that subjects of the British Empire could also be killed in this world, and by yellow-skinned people. Thus, they sought to reason with the shogunate, demanding compensation of £100,000. The shogunate responded with ignorance, stating, "That was the Satsuma domain; you must seek them out." Consequently, the British dispatched 10 warships to Kagoshima to demand an explanation.

In 1862, the so-called "Namamugi Incident" occurred in the present-day Namamugi area of Yokohama, where four British men on horseback charged into the procession of the Satsuma lord, Shimazu Hisamitsu. Just minutes before this incident, an official from the American consulate, Van Reed, also encountered the procession. Following the European custom of dismounting to give way to noblemen or women in carriages, Van Reed yielded and no incident occurred. However, these British men had spent a long time in Shanghai, where it was commonplace for them to whip yellow-skinned individuals from horseback. How could these big-nosed men yield to the yellow-skinned Japanese? This led to a conflict with the lord's samurai, during which a British man named Richardson had his intestines cut out by the Japanese and attempted to flee while dragging his intestines. Another samurai, seeing his suffering, "performed the act of mercy" by decapitating Richardson with a single stroke. Two were severely injured, and the remaining individual, a woman named Polodale, was unharmed but was driven mad by the fright and soon died.

The effectiveness of this training can be seen from the fact that the last Vice Admiral Inoue Seimei turned to teaching English in a tutoring class as a means of livelihood after the war

The Naval Academy and the Army Officer School were established simultaneously as the predecessor "Military Academy"; however, the name change for the Naval Academy occurred two years later than that of the Army. As a result, the term "Officer" was appropriated by the Army, leaving the Navy to use the rather scholarly term "Military Studies". In fact, the Army is somewhat peculiar; aside from the name "Army Officer School", it does not use this term elsewhere, opting instead for "Commissioned Officers". Conversely, the Navy extensively uses the term "Officer" in various contexts, except in the name of the school. The Army is indeed a bit odd; aside from the name "Army Officer School", it does not use this term elsewhere, preferring "Commissioned Officers", while the Navy, apart from the school name, frequently employs the term "Officer" in other situations.

At that time, the powerful Minister of Internal Affairs, Ōkubo Toshimichi, immediately established the Bureau of Domain Affairs, headed by Ōkuma Shigenobu, with Lieutenant General Saigō Takamori as the bureau chief. They hastily purchased two merchant ships from Britain and the United States, outfitting them with cannons to serve as warships, preparing to attack Taiwan, referred to as a "no man's land." However, Kido Takayoshi, a councilor who was also known as one of the "Three Great Leaders of the Restoration" alongside Saigō Takamori and Ōkubo Toshimichi, strongly opposed the military expedition to Taiwan. Additionally, the powers of Britain and the United States also disagreed, leading the cabinet to decide to postpone the military action. Nevertheless, Saigō Takamori, who was on standby in Nagasaki, refused to accept the order and led three thousand troops to set sail on May 2, 1874, landing in southern Taiwan on May 6. This action is historically referred to as the "Saigō's Great March" and marked the beginning of a precedent in modern history for Japanese military personnel to resist the government.

In Japanese naval terminology, "officer" does not refer to "non-commissioned officer" but is rather an antonym to "soldier," meaning "military officer." Second Lieutenant is considered an "officer," and General is also an "officer." The Japanese Army began transitioning from the French system to the Prussian system of education in 1887. The transformation of the Navy occurred even earlier, starting from the establishment of the Naval Training School, which shifted from the original French educational model to the British one. In 1873, the British dispatched 34 instructors, led by Major Douglas (Sir Archibald Lucius Douglas), who later became the Commander of the North American Fleet, to Japan. The British remained in Japan for a total of 17 years, with 69 instances of personnel exchange. The transformation of the Navy occurred even earlier, starting from the establishment of the Naval Training School, which shifted from the original French educational model to the British one. In 1873, the British dispatched 34 instructors, led by Major Douglas (Sir Archibald Lucius Douglas), who later became the Commander of the North American Fleet, to Japan. The British remained in Japan for a total of 17 years, with 69 instances of personnel exchange. Douglas himself stayed in Japan for two years, and had it not been for a warning that failing to return home promptly might affect his promotion, he might have continued to stay longer.

In late May, the Qing Dynasty dispatched Minister of Navy Affairs Shen Baozhen to Taiwan, along with 6,000 troops from the Huai Army to engage in combat. Subsequently, under the mediation of British Minister Witte, the Qing court reached the "Beijing Treaty" with Japan, resulting in a muddled compensation of 500,000 taels of silver to the Japanese, and also acknowledging that the Japanese military's deployment was a "righteous act to protect the people." This provided Japan with a basis for later asserting that Ryukyu was a territory of Japan. The following year, Japan began to take measures against Ryukyu, and in 1879, forcibly relocated the King of Ryukyu to Tokyo. Furthermore, the acknowledgment of the Japanese military's deployment as a "righteous act to protect the people" served as a justification for Japan's future claims over Ryukyu as its territory. The following year, Japan began to take measures against Ryukyu, and in 1879, forcibly relocated the King of Ryukyu to Tokyo.

The citizens also actively contributed, and finally the funds were raised to build warships that could compete with the Dingyuan and Zhenyuan. Orders were placed for the battleships "Fuji" and "Asama" and the cruisers "Akashi" and "Miyako". Reflecting on the joy of the Empress Dowager Cixi at that time, one cannot help but feel at a loss for words. I remember one year a Japanese professor returned from Beijing and invited me to watch a video he had taken. When we saw the stone boat at the Summer Palace, the professor specifically added, "It is said that thanks to this stone boat, Japan won the First Sino-Japanese War." I was left speechless and could only hope that such tragedies would not be repeated.

In the second year of Meiji (1869), the Ministry of Military Affairs stated in its "Proposal for the Establishment of a Great Navy": "Warships derive their spirit from officers; without officers, sailors will be rendered ineffective. If sailors are ineffective, then the ships will become useless debris. Moreover, the mastery of the profound knowledge required by naval officers is by no means an easy task, thus a pressing matter at present is to establish schools as soon as possible"

At the time when Ito Yuheng lamented the absence of warships, the Japanese Navy had already spent over twenty years cultivating and organizing naval personnel, and the effects of this effort were beginning to show.

In fact, five years prior, in August 1886, the Beiyang Fleet dispatched four warships led by the two main cruisers "Dingyuan" and "Zhenyuan" (the other two were "Jiyuan" and "Weiyuan") to visit Japan, with Ding Ruchang at the helm. This occurred after naval exercises in the Yellow Sea, as they headed to Nagasaki for ship repairs. There was no necessity to go to Japan for repairs, so there was actually a significant element of showcasing military power involved. During this visit to Nagasaki, an incident occurred that is well-known in Japan, referred to as the "Qing Dynasty Nagasaki Sailor Incident." Soldiers of the Beiyang Fleet clashed with Japanese police due to solicitation, resulting in a violent confrontation that left 10 dead and over 70 injured. The outcome was an apology from the Japanese and compensation for the damages.

However, one thing that remains unclear is: Japanese naval students are rejected everywhere. Is it due to disdain for these yellow-skinned monkeys, or is it to protect naval secrets that no one knows? In any case, they are unwelcome wherever they go

Having no other choice, I had to establish a school myself from the very beginning, and I invested heavily to hire British experts to assist. Of course, Britain was the foremost naval power at that time, which was the primary reason for the Japanese to seek British help. A more direct reason was the realization of the strength of the British Navy during the Anglo-Saxon War in 1863.

The Koishikawa Korakuen in the Koishikawa Arsenal of Tokyo. At the request of Foreign Minister Enomoto Takeaki, Admiral Hayashiya Yoshinori, the Minister of the Navy, will hold a welcome banquet in the form of a garden party here. The distinguished guests include Ding Ruchang, the Admiral of the Beiyang Fleet of the Qing Dynasty, and 50 officers from the Beiyang Fleet aboard seven warships, including the flagship "Dingyuan" and "Zhenyuan," who are currently visiting Japan

At that time, Japan was a poor and underdeveloped small country. The simplest and most cost-effective way to cultivate naval talent was to send people to study in Europe and America. In fact, this was the initial thought of the Japanese, as exemplified by Tōgō Heihachirō, who was sent to study in England for as long as eight years.

The Japanese were very serious about establishing this school, to what extent? They even explained why the Naval Academy moved to the Etajima area of Hiroshima. With the gradual prosperity of the economy, the Navy Ministry believed that having the school in bustling Tokyo would lead to the moral decline of the students. Therefore, they chose this desolate island in Hiroshima, where not even birds would nest at the time. Before the relocation, they signed a contract with the local gentry titled "The Summary of the Prohibition of Etajima," which stipulated that within a designated area of Etajima, there should be no "lewd and disgraceful acts," meaning that brothels and similar establishments could not be opened, in order to maintain the educational environment. Indeed, for the 57 years until Japan's defeat in 1945, Etajima managed to uphold this standard. As for later, when the facilities were taken over by the American military, and courtesans from all over Japan and the world flocked to Etajima, the subsequent prosperity of vice became a later development.

This aspect should be something that individuals are quite willing to accept. Until the defeat, as long as conditions allowed, the Japanese Navy maintained a luxurious lifestyle. The meals for officers and soldiers were completely different; formal attire was required for main meals, accompanied by a military band. This is quite different from the army, where the Japanese Army had a somewhat "officer and soldier unity" approach, at least on the battlefield, where generals and common soldiers were served the same food.

Certainly, the education at the Naval Academy did not keep pace with the times after entering the 20th century, lagging behind the era, which was also one of the reasons for the failure of the Japanese Navy, a point that will be discussed later

With high-quality officers and a sound organizational system, the addition of naval vessels and weaponry hardware could lead to a remarkable leap overnight, provided there is sufficient time to familiarize oneself with the performance of the equipment. However, following the Meiji Restoration, Japan experienced continuous internal strife. By 1884, there had been a total of 162 incidents of civil war and unrest, including the Saga Rebellion, the Ogi Rebellion, the Godwind Alliance Rebellion, and the Southwest War.

The General Staff is not particularly coveted; however, the joint general staff of various military branches is quite a novel and fashionable concept in this world. The renowned United States Joint Chiefs of Staff was actually established on June 20, 1942. Among major powers, the earliest joint general staff is that of the United Kingdom, which was formed in 1939, and its origins can only be traced back to the Committee of Imperial Defence established in 1923.

In the latter half of the 19th century, Japan was a backward agricultural country. How did it manage to miraculously establish a powerful military force, including both the army and navy? This success can be attributed to the effective establishment of the Army Officer School and the Naval Academy, which were instrumental in training military commanders.

Hua Shan Zi Ji angrily said to Rear Admiral Ito Junji: "The most detestable person is Ding Ruchang. Foreign Minister Enomoto insists on discussing 'Sino-Japanese friendship.' Therefore, tomorrow we will all mobilize to meet this enemy we will inevitably encounter on the battlefield. Everyone, remember Ding Ruchang's face. Call the Director of Military Affairs."

Later, the Satsuma Domain still paid £25,000, but it was not from its own funds. It borrowed 63,000 taels of silver from the shogunate to compensate the British, and thereafter did not repay, defaulting on that debt

The luxury of student dormitories and the grandeur of life are traditions of the European navy. In Europe, it is a noble military branch, and naval officers are all aristocrats, emphasizing "Noble's Oblige." This means that the country belongs to you; you enjoy good food and drink in daily life, but when the time comes, you must be willing to sacrifice for your country.

When the British arrived in Kagoshima and saw such a rural place, they thought they could not come up with 100,000 pounds, so they reduced it to 25,000. However, they insisted on punishing the perpetrator. Due to poor translation, the term "perpetrator" was translated into Japanese as "responsible person." The feudal lord, Shimazu Hisamitsu, was alarmed and exclaimed: "What? You want to punish the lord? The lord will fight back!" This led to a confrontation, and after a fierce battle, all the achievements of the Satsuma Domain, which was the first in Japan to implement reform and opening-up, were destroyed by British cannon fire, though the casualties were not many, only five. In contrast, the aggressive British suffered 63 casualties, including the captain of the flagship HMS Euryalus, Captain Joslin, and the first officer, Weimer, who both met their end.

During the return voyage, the Beiyang Fleet still navigated through the Seto Inland Sea. While anchored at Miyajima in Hiroshima, they received Vice Admiral Nakamuta Kurano-suke, the commander of the Kure Naval District, and Colonel Tōgō Heihachirō, the chief of staff. During this visit, the "Pingyuan" claimed to have a malfunction and entered the Kure naval port for repairs, but in reality, it was somewhat intended for observing and gathering intelligence on the technological capabilities of the Japanese Navy

In 1873, Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs Soejima Taneomi of the Meiji government went to China for negotiations. The initial response from Mao Changxi of the Grand Council was somewhat reasonable: "Both islands (referring to Ryukyu and Taiwan) belong to us. The people of our territory may kill each other, and the decision lies with us. I have compassion for the Ryukyuans and will handle the situation accordingly. What concern is it of your country regarding this matter?"

On the following day, Major General Ito visited the ships "Dingyuan" and "Zhenyuan" accompanied by Ding Ruchang

However, if one believes that the Naval Academy is merely a place for enjoyment and leisure, that would be a mistake. Douglas brought the curriculum of the Royal Naval College to Japan, and there was naturally no time to translate the textbooks, nor was there any need to do so—after all, the Naval Academy placed a high emphasis on English. The teachers were British, the textbooks were in English, assignments were to be completed in English, and questions were to be answered in English. The only instances where Japanese was used were when students secretly complained about this "English world" behind the scenes; apart from that, everything was in English. This was the situation at the beginning of the Naval Academy, but the institution has never relaxed its requirements for English. Even during the Pacific War, when the military called for a boycott of English as an "enemy language," the Naval Academy insisted that even the dictionaries used for looking up unfamiliar words had to be English-English dictionaries. This was the situation at the beginning of the Naval Academy, but the institution has never relaxed its requirements for English. Even during the Pacific War, when the military called for a boycott of English as an "enemy language," the Naval Academy insisted that even the dictionaries used for looking up unfamiliar words had to be English-English dictionaries

Due to the circumstances, it was necessary to awkwardly fit a 32-centimeter single-barrel heavy artillery onto a 4,000-ton ship. The price paid for this was a reduction in armor thickness and power output, akin to giving a child a large handgun. This 32-centimeter single-barrel cannon, whenever it rotates or changes its angle, causes the ship's center of gravity to shift, leading to instability. Additionally, the recoil from firing will cause the ship to deviate from its course, meaning it can essentially only be used to bolster morale.

The Army opposed the Navy General Staff, and even within the Navy, not everyone favored the General Staff. The first Navy Minister, Saigo Takamori, had a disdain for the General Staff, as he came from an Army background and did not truly understand the Navy. At the time he served as Navy Minister, he still held the rank of Army Lieutenant General, and it was only later that he managed to attain the rank of Admiral. There was a naval lieutenant who had studied in Britain named Hekō Taitō, who was a fervent advocate for the Navy General Staff. In 1881, he was promoted to Lieutenant Commander and later served as a military attaché in Britain, where he persuaded the then Navy Minister, Kawamura Sumiyoshi. Hekō's arguments against the establishment of the Navy General Staff were turned by Katsura Tarō into reasons for its immediate establishment: Japan is a maritime nation, and in times of war, the Navy is the vanguard. What would happen if the vanguard lacked a General Staff? Everyone is a soldier of His Majesty the Emperor, all are equal; why does the Army have a General Staff while the Navy does not?

The later commander of the Combined Fleet, who decisively defeated the Beiyang Fleet and rose to the rank of Marshal and Admiral, Rear Admiral Ito responded: "Admiral Ding Ruchang is demonstrating to us, implying that Japan's inland sea is the courtyard of the Beiyang Fleet. If war breaks out between Japan and China, he could command the Beiyang Fleet to advance straight to Tokyo. It is fine to attend the welcome banquet, but I earnestly request that the Minister ensure the Foreign Minister and the Prime Minister agree to our visit to the Qing Dynasty as well." The next day, at the garden party, Ito Yuheng directly approached Admiral Ding Ruchang and said: "Admiral Ding, may I visit your magnificent super battleship 'Dingyuan'?" It is fine to attend the welcome banquet, but I earnestly request that the Minister ensure the Foreign Minister and the Prime Minister agree to our visit to the Qing Dynasty as well. The next day, at the garden party, Ito Yuheng directly approached Admiral Ding Ruchang and said: "Admiral Ding, may I visit your magnificent super battleship 'Dingyuan'?"

After the military deployment, Xixiang recognized the necessity of strengthening naval armaments, transitioning from a Lieutenant General in the Army to a Vice Admiral in the Navy, and persuading the government to raise the Navy's budget to half that of the Army. In 1875, 90% of that year's naval budget was spent, amounting to 3.11 million yen, to order three warships, "Fusō," "Kongō," and "Hiei," from the United Kingdom, which were commissioned by 1878. Each of these warships weighed less than 4,000 tons, and by the standards of the battleships held by European countries at that time, which were around 10,000 tons, they could hardly be considered significant warships. Consequently, the Japanese later classified these vessels merely as "coastal defense ships." However, until the commissioning of the two ironclad ships, "Dingyuan" and "Zhenyuan," each weighing 7,200 tons, into the Beiyang Fleet in 1885, these three ships remained the only modern armored vessels possessed by Asian countries.

It was originally planned to establish a naval base in Muroran, Hokkaido, but this was not realized. After the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, a naval base was established in Lüshunkou, which remained in operation until it was disbanded in 1914 during World War I

The Meiji Navy was initially characterized by a unified military and administrative command, with the ocean surface divided into "naval districts" and naval vessels allocated to designated "guard offices". The first of these was the "Eastern Sea Guard Office" established in Yokohama in 1875, which was later relocated to Yokosuka and renamed the "Yokosuka Guard Office". There was originally a plan to establish a "Western Sea Guard Office" in Nagasaki, but it was never realized. Instead, in 1889, two additional guard offices were added in Kure and Sasebo, resulting in three naval districts. In 1901, the Maizuru Guard Office was established, bringing the total to four naval districts

As long as it can bolster courage, they unceremoniously built the "Matsushima" and "Yamashiro" in France, and by the time they reached the third and fourth ships, they simply constructed them at the Yokosuka Naval Shipyard in 1888. This move towards domestic production incited great anger from Bertin, who returned home before the contract was fulfilled, disregarding the situation. Ultimately, the Japanese managed to complete the "K橋立". For the fourth ship, they modified the plans, reverting to Bertin's original design philosophy, resulting in a high-speed cruiser with a displacement of 3,150 tons, equipped with four 15.2 cm single-mounted guns, six 12 cm single-mounted guns, and eight 4.7 cm single-mounted guns, achieving a speed of 19 knots. Thus, the originally planned "Four Scenic Ships" became "Three Scenic Ships". By 1894, when the "K橋立" and "Akitsushima" were commissioned, although the Japanese Navy did not yet have a guaranteed victory against the Beiyang Fleet, they felt significantly less fearful.

However, some people do not see it this way

In 1870, the Meiji government established the "Naval Training Institute" in Tsukiji, Tokyo, imitating the "Nagasaki Naval Training Institute" of the shogunate. The following year, it was renamed the "Naval Military Academy," and by 1876, it was changed to the "Naval Academy." In 1888, it moved to Etajima in Hiroshima Prefecture, and a Naval University was established on the original site of the Naval Academy in Tokyo. Chinese people commonly refer to the Naval Academy in Etajima as the "Etajima Naval School," a term attributed to Lin Liguo's use of a translation from the Japanese film "Ah, Navy," which left a deep impression on him, in the "571 Project Summary." A Naval University was established on the original site of the Naval Academy in Tokyo. Chinese people commonly refer to the Naval Academy in Etajima as the "Etajima Naval School," a term attributed to Lin Liguo's use of a translation from the Japanese film "Ah, Navy," which left a deep impression on him, in the "571 Project Summary."

Tōngxiāng Píngbāláng realized that the Beiyang Fleet's software support had not kept pace with the hardware procurement

The government was exhausted from suppressing uprisings everywhere, and military expenditures were almost entirely consumed by the army, leaving the navy's demands for the expansion of its fleet unmet. Thus, the Japanese navy was unable to realize the "Great Navy Dream" that began with Katsu Kaishū until the 1870s. However, after the "Mudanshe Incident" in Taiwan in 1871, circumstances changed. In October of that year, a Ryukyu fishing boat encountered a typhoon at sea and drifted to Bayao Bay in southeastern Taiwan. Of the 66 people who landed, 54 were killed in conflicts with the indigenous people of Taiwan, while the remaining 12 were assisted by local Han Chinese and were sent back to their country via Fuzhou by Qing officials.

In fact, the army's resolute opposition is not based on the superficial rhetoric they express. The General Staff is the Emperor's advisory body, and the army, having worked hard to attain this position, will not allow the navy to share in the spoils. Of course, the army does not fully understand the navy, which is why there exists the bizarre theory that the navy is simply unworthy of holding a "staff" position. It is said that without staff officers, the army cannot fight; army staff officers can devise brilliant operational plans, while the so-called "staff" of the navy are merely clerks who copy and write documents. The army perceives the navy as mere craftsmen operating machines, with no room for subjective initiative. No matter how capable your staff officers are or how well-trained your sailors are, a warship with a speed of ten knots cannot exceed that speed, and a cannon with a range of 3,000 meters cannot hit a target at 3,100 meters. In the army's view, naval warfare is simply a matter of lining up and firing cannons; the one with the larger caliber wins. What "artistry of war" can there be? Now, this group of craftsmen wants to learn from the army and establish a staff system—how ridiculous is that?

But what about the Japanese Navy? In this regard, it must be acknowledged that the construction of the Japanese Navy's hetushu.com began with software development.

At that time, the Director of Naval Affairs at the Navy Ministry was Rear Admiral Itō Yūhō. As soon as Itō entered, Kawai Zaki asked him a question: "Itō-kun, why do you think Ding Ruchang took such a strange route this time, entering the Inland Sea from Shimonoseki, circling the Kii Peninsula to come to Tokyo?"

Heigang boldly proposed a significant restructuring, suggesting the establishment of a "Unified General Staff" with separate Army and Navy departments, and that the Chief of Staff be rotated between the Army and Navy. Heigang initially intended to use these conditions to demand exorbitant concessions, hoping to exchange immediate benefits for the Army's concessions. To his surprise, this proposal caught the attention of then Prime Minister Ito Hirobumi. Although Ito was not a military man, he leveraged his reputation and popularity to persuade the Army to accept the Navy and establish a "Unified General Staff." The first Chief of Staff was Prince Arisugawa Taruhito, the Army Minister was Lieutenant General Soga Yasunori, and the Navy Minister was Vice Admiral Nirei Kagefumi. Those who have read "There is a Type of War Criminal Called 'Staff Officer'" will remember that this formidable group, aside from Yamagata Aritomo, was almost entirely composed of the same personnel who had fought against Saigo Takamori's rebel forces during the "Southeast War."

However, the Qing court did not relinquish its sovereignty over Ryukyu, and it was only after the defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War that it ceased to assert this claim

We are all old acquaintances, so it should be easy to get along, right? No, first of all, the Minister of the Navy is not interested in this so-called "Joint Staff Headquarters." It is understandable, as the Minister of the Navy and the Minister of the Army are on equal footing, but the Chief of Staff is from the Army. This makes it seem as though the Navy is subordinate to the Army, which is a lower position. So, the Army should be satisfied, right? But they are not. The reasons for the Army's dissatisfaction are even more absurd. At that time, the Japanese Army was divided into the "mainstream faction" and the "non-mainstream faction," with the distinction being on the issue of "external military preparedness." Army elder Yamagata Aritomo and Yamamoto Gonnohyōe were both part of the mainstream faction, advocating for the expansion of military preparedness for external warfare. However, the two successive ministers of the Army section of the General Staff Headquarters, Sōma Yōjun and Ozawa Takeo, were both non-mainstream faction members who opposed expansion. The mainstream faction, feeling both resentment towards the ministers and that their interests were being harmed, decided to eliminate this unfortunate office altogether, denying these traitors any official positions. As a result, the so-called Joint Staff Headquarters only lasted two years before it met its demise. Lieutenant General Sōma was also sent to the reserves.

Ding Ruchang smiled calmly and said: "You are always welcome, but you can only observe; we will not answer the questions you raise"

The Naval Academy and the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, along with the Royal Naval College at Dartmouth in the United Kingdom, are collectively regarded as the three major naval academies in the world. This recognition seems justified, as these were once the three great naval powers. However, upon closer reflection, it is somewhat astonishing. Compared to the army, which is more influenced by spiritual factors, the navy is more constrained by national power, and since this naval academy is part of the navy, it should be no exception. How did impoverished Japan manage to establish this naval academy? Yet, upon further contemplation, it remains somewhat incredible. Compared to the army, which is more influenced by spiritual factors, the navy is more constrained by national power, and since this naval academy is part of the navy, it should be no exception. How did impoverished Japan manage to establish this naval academy?

Like Heihachiro Togoshima, who wanted to go to the United Kingdom to attend the Royal Naval College at Dartmouth, he was told upon arrival that it was not possible, and as a result, he could only attend a merchant marine school

However, it is generally believed that the Japanese, who are often considered lacking in creativity, had already established a "General Staff Headquarters" in March 1886 to oversee both land and naval operations, but just two years later, they separated again. Reflecting on this brief period of unity before their division is quite helpful for understanding the history of the Japanese Navy. The author has discussed some aspects of that history in "There is a Type of War Criminal Called 'Staff Officer'"; this time, we will examine that history from the perspective of the Navy

A phrase was left for Japan that could be used to mobilize troops to the "Unclaimed Frontier"

Another contribution that Major Douglas brought to the Marine Corps Academy was sports. In 1874, the Academy held its first athletic event called the "Competitive Games Association," which marked the beginning of what is now known as the "Sports Day" held annually by schools, companies, and various organizations in Japan.

In order to counter the two massive ships, each weighing 7,200 tons, with an armor thickness of 305 mm and equipped with two 30.5 cm twin guns, the Japanese Navy's strategy was to ensure that, at the very least, their artillery would surpass that of Dingyuan and Zhenyuan, at least in terms of numbers. This led to the "Four Scenic Ships" plan. The so-called "Four Scenic Ships" refers to four armored cruisers named after four famous tourist destinations in Japan: "Matsushima," "Itsukushima," "Hashiradate," and "Akitsushima." The French engineer Émile Bertin, responsible for the design, initially considered that Japan only had 4,000-ton dry docks, and thus aimed to use the French protected cruiser as a model to build a high-speed cruiser equipped with multiple medium-caliber guns and enhanced power performance. However, this proposal was rejected by the Japanese Navy, which was fixated on Dingyuan and Zhenyuan.

However, as the weather improved, the power of the latest Armstrong guns equipped on British warships became evident. Not only were the coastal fortifications of the Satsuma Domain thoroughly destroyed, but the newly constructed shipyards and other modern industries were also completely devastated. It was only after this that the two parties sat down to negotiate

During the Sino-British War, the Japanese observed the British displaying their cool demeanor, and their envy was not limited to the warships, cannons, and navy. The Japanese noticed that during battles, there was a military band playing music on the British decks, which they found to be quite marvelous. While negotiations were still ongoing without any results, some individuals climbed aboard British warships to request lessons on playing Western drums and bugles. Upon returning, they began to practice, and subsequently, large vessels of the Japanese navy consistently included military bands in their structure. They would practice their instruments on board while also maintaining cleanliness, and during wartime, they would transport shells while also playing music. This practice originated from what they learned from the British during the Sino-British War.

Like all prestigious naval academies, the most luxurious building at the Kure Naval School is the student dormitory known as "Seito-kan." It was designed under the supervision of John Diack, a British architect who served as the deputy chief of the Railway Bureau of the Ministry of Public Works, which was equivalent to the later Ministry of Railways. Not only is it entirely in the British style, but all the red bricks were individually wrapped and shipped from England by warship. The original price was 0.2 yen, while at that time, a carpenter's daily wage was only 0.1 yen. After arriving in Japan, the cost of each brick was calculated to be over 1.5 yen. At that time, three yen could be exchanged for two taels of silver, meaning that those red bricks would be equivalent to over 150 dollars each in today's prices.

Major Douglas was most frustrated upon arriving in Japan to find that the majority of the Marine students came from farming backgrounds, with very few being of noble descent. Out of a sense of pride for the noble military branch, Douglas emphasized to the Japanese the importance of "be a gentleman before the officer"